In this article we explore some of the key advances since the days of paper charts and sextants that are keeping modern ships safe from catastrophic accidents.
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Getting your Trinity Audio player ready...The officer of the watch on the bridge of a modern cargo ship or cruise liner is responsible for the safe navigation of these giants of the sea. They rely on an array of navigational technology to safely find their way and avoid collisions with other ships or natural obstacles. But how has navigational technology advanced in the past 50 years?
Even in the s and s, ships already had some impressive modern technology available. The increasing accuracy and reliability of gyrocompasses had made error-prone magnetic compasses obsolete except as a backup. Gyrocompasses rely on a rapidly spinning gyroscope to detect the rotation of the earth and point towards the centre of rotation at the North Pole.
The widespread use of radar onboard ships, originally developed for military application started to find application in civilian ships from the s. This was a major advance allowing ships officers to effectively see in the dark or even in thick fog or low cloud. Later, Automatic Radar Plotting Assistance was added to help make sense of complex traffic situations by keeping track of objects the radar had picked up.
VHF radio was widely adopted and allowed ship-to-ship and ship-to-shore voice communication, replacing signal flags and semaphore. To fix the ship&#;s position, radio direction finding was used. Hyperbolic radio-fixing systems such as LORAN-A and DECCA were considered the state of the art in navigational technology. By triangulating the bearing of radio signal transmitters at known locations, the ship&#;s navigator was able to fix the ship&#;s position down to the accuracy of approximately one nautical mile, even in the open ocean. These radio-fixing aids simplified the navigator&#;s problem of determining how far from land the ship was but did not do much for precise coastal pilotage. Skilled local pilots with the ability to steer the ship from visual marks with knowledge of local currents and hazards remained critical to safe navigation.
The s and s saw rapid developments in ships and shore-based technology. Global attention was focused on the environmental consequences of shipping accidents by a number of high-profile and severely damaging groundings and oils spills. Notable examples among these were the SS Torrey Canyon grounding and spill of more than 100 million litres of oil on the south coast of the UK, and the Amoco Cadiz spill of 256 million litres of oil on the beaches of Brittany. In Canada, the groundings and spills of the SS Arrow (, 10 million litres) and SS Kurdistan (, 6 million litres) drew attention to shipping risks in Chedabucto Bay and Cabot Strait.
In response, Traffic Separation Schemes (TSS) were established, commencing in with the Dover Straits (mandatory in ) and now extending to all areas of major marine traffic confluence. TSS, as the name suggests, create a system of separated one-way traffic lanes. The routes are established through the IMO Convention on the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREGs), and implemented through national regulation, help to streamline traffic flow, reduce crossing and heads-on meeting situations, thus significantly reducing the risk of collision. The value of TSS continues to be recognized with new TSS being added each year to the list sanctioned by the IMO. The IMO established the TSS in the Strait of Juan de Fuca in and Canada now has 5 mandatory and 7 recommended routing systems.
In conjunction with TSS, Vessel Traffic Services (VTS) were established to provide oversight of vessel movements. This was pioneered in Liverpool and Rotterdam in and respectively and was implemented in the very busy Dover Straits by . VTS were initially quite rudimentary, comprising manual radar surveillance and radio call-in points for ship self-reporting. In recent years VTS have been augmented by digital ship tracking and sophisticated computer algorithms for highlighting collision and grounding risks. Trained VTS operators aid safety of navigation by alerting ships to dangers and providing a critical interface with search and rescue, pollution and other marine response agencies.
Onboard the ship also saw revolutionary changes in technology in the s and s, starting with the development of satellite navigation systems in the s.
The US Navy&#;s TRANSIT navigation system of determining terrestrial positions by cross-fixing obtained from radio Doppler-shifts was made available for civilian use and then superseded in the s by the more accurate Global Positioning System (GPS), which determines distance by precise time differences. In the year , all users were given access to the highest accuracy service when the military disabled a system they had been using to degrade accuracy for civilian users called Selective Availability.
The increased accuracy led to the explosion of geographic information systems (GIS) and georeferenced applications in all aspects of civilian life. Modern navigation systems now have access to American, European, Russian and Chinese satellite constellations simultaneously which allows them to accurately fix positions to within less than one metre. The combined constellation of technologies has been recognized with the acronym GNSS &#; Global Navigation Satellite Systems.
These high degrees of navigational precision provided by GNSS was complemented by the digitization of paper charts through Electronic Nautical Charts (ENC). The combination creates the ability for mariners to precisely view their position in space on the chart through an Electronic Chart Display and Information Systems (ECDIS). The result is highly accurate, fully automatic electronic navigation available both commercially and recreationally.
Ships still had to rely on radar, radio communication or visual observations to detect other ships until the advent of Automatic Identification Systems (AIS). AIS is a system of automated VHF radio transmissions that exchanges between ships key identification and navigational data such as a ship name, IMO number, type of ship, destination, activity/status (underway, anchored, fishing, etc.) position, course, and speed. The information is displayed on the ship&#;s navigation system (radar or ECDIS) as symbology with leaders to indicate true and relative movement. In this way, the navigator is able to correlate ships with radar contacts, and to immediately identify them for bridge-to-bridge radio communications in resolving collision avoidance situations. This same technology has also aided marine safety with the use of Virtual Aids to Navigation (V-AtoN) to highlight navigational hazards or temporary exclusion zones. These are navigational warnings or dangers transmitted to the ship&#;s radar/chart plotters as symbology, showing apparent contacts through AIS technology without the need for a physical object like a warning buoy.
The cross-referencing of radar and geographic (charted) information on both radars and ECDIS, combined with AIS, gives navigators the ability to make risk assessments and decisions based on accurate and complete information, even in low visibility conditions. It is even possible for ships to follow planned tracks through the use of autopilots. Such autopilots can operate in three modes: course maintaining, track-following, and route-following. Most ships use the first, with the bridge watchkeeper making adjustments for track following, maintaining personal awareness of the ship&#;s set and drift. Almost always in situations of critical pilotage or complex traffic, and in heavy seas, ships will revert to hand steering for greater control and quicker response.
Communication technology also advanced significantly in the last few decades of the 20th century. Increasing prevalence of mobile data connections has created the opportunity for real-time acquisition of weather, wind, bathymetry, water-level and air-gap data through localized networks. Satellite communication initially opened the door to voice communication even when outside of the range of VHF radio. Increasingly, satellite communication is used for data. Lower-cost satellite internet brought about by low-earth orbit satellite technology (e.g., Starlink, Telesat or Iridium) means that modern ships can now have access to real-time data sources over extended ranges, subject to satellite coverage and service subscription.
The baseline of navigational equipment in ocean-going ships varies by tonnage. The table below summarizes required navigational equipment in accordance with Canada&#;s Navigational Safety Regulations (NSR) , which mirror the IMO&#;s SOLAS Chapter V requirements.
Mandatory Equipment by Tonnage<150 GT150 GT+300 GT+500 GT+ GT+10,000 GT+50,000 GT+Steering Magnetic CompassxxxxxxxGyro Compass xxxxxxGNSS Receiver xxxxxxPelorus xxxxxxSpare Magnetic Compass xxxxxxDaylight Signalling Lamp xxxxxxEcho Sounder xxxxx9 GHz radar xxxxxSpeed Log xxxxxAutomatic Radar Plotting Assistance xxxxxHelm and Engine Repeaters xxxxSecond radar (3 GHz or 9 GHz) xxxAutopilot xxRate of Turn Indicator xVoyage Data Recorder PassengerxxxECDIS PassengerxxxAISNote 1xxxxxxTwo-way voice (radio) xxxxxCorrected charts and pubsNote 2xxxxxxNotes1Vessels >20 m other than pleasure craft, and vessels with >50 passengers, towboats >8 m, and vessels with hazardous cargoes2All vessels, but <100 GT may be exempt if the master has local knowledge; maybe ENCSummary of Navigation Equipment (Source: NSR )While the standard set of technologies varies depending on size of the ship measured in gross tonnes, the common technologies for even small ships (GPS, ECDIS, Automatic Radar Plotting Assistance, radars, AIS, autopilot, satellite communications and internet connectivity) is a very significant step up from the mid-60s, at which time even large, modern ships were being navigated on paper charts with rudimentary radio navigation aids, with hand-plotted collision avoidance on simple radars.
The trend in digitalization and connected technology seen in ships has also been mirrored in the technology deployed by the pilots who board the ships to safely navigate them through the challenging waters close to port. Portable Pilotage Units (PPU) are personal tablet computers carried by the pilot, and they replace the detailed course books that the pilots in the s and 70s carried with them. PPUs give the marine pilot a reliable, accurate and independent source of navigation information. Previous to the introduction of PPU&#;s, pilots were reliant on the ship&#;s fitted equipment (gyros, radars, echo sounders, paper charts, etc.), augmented by visual navigation enabled by memorization of courses, leading marks, clearing bearing and other traditional pilotage methods. The key benefit of PPU&#;s is the availability to the pilot of highly accurate positional and navigation information that enables precise navigation independent of any possible faults or failures in the ship&#;s fitted systems. With cellular data connection or ship Wi-Fi, there is now also a possibility of integrated live feeds of current local hydrographic information such as water levels.
The safety record of international shipping has advanced dramatically since the early s when the global fleet would lose 1 ship in every 100 to sinking according to data collected by Lloyd&#;s Register. Nowadays these types of accidents are extremely rare, with only 38 ships lost in in a global fleet of more than 130,000 .
Since the era of paper charts and sextants, navigation technologies have undergone a remarkable transformation. Satellite navigation systems, sophisticated radar, electronic charts and real-time communications are just some of the innovations that have revolutionized the way ships navigate at sea.
These technological advances have not only improved navigational safety, but also optimized the efficiency of maritime operations. Ships can now navigate on more precise routes, reducing fuel consumption and emissions. Vessel traffic management systems and vessel tracking technologies enable better coordination and visibility of movements, reducing the risk of collision.
As we look to the future, the horizon for navigation technology looks even brighter. Artificial intelligence, machine learning and augmented reality have the potential to further transform marine navigation, making it even safer, more efficient and more sustainable.
This article originates from Clear Seas Research into the Technology Implications for Marine Pilotage. Find out more about this project here.
RAdm Nigel Greenwood, RCN (Retired), FRIN, FNI, holds a BSc in Physics and Oceanography, as well as an MA in International Studies. He is a naval veteran and qualified master mariner, who maintains seagoing currency in seasonal employment as an ice navigator in the Canadian Arctic, and as a local small-craft sailor. His consultancy, Greenwood Maritime Solutions Ltd (GMSL), specializes in Threat and Risk Assessments, Operations Research and Maritime Operational Studies. GMSL has previously conducted operational studies and assessments for the Pacific Pilotage Authority, the Canadian Hydrographic Service, Transport Canada, Defence Research and Development Canada, the BC Ministry of Transportation and Infrastructure (Highways Branch), and the Canada Port Authorities of Prince Rupert and Vancouver.
Learning about boat electronics may seem a bit daunting, but the tech at your helm will help make running and navigating your boat easier than ever. Thanks to modern marine electronics and navigational instruments, captaining your boat is far less complex and confusing than it once was.
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In fact, electronics have taken tasks like navigation, which once required years of learning to master, and made them as simple as pressing a few buttons or swiping on a touch screen. There are still some rather complex tasks and gear involved when one considers operating some large vessels, but for the average recreational boat owner the list of electronics you&#;ll need to learn about is relatively short.
How to Navigate a Boat
Think of multifunction displays, commonly called MFDs, as the &#;brain&#; for your boat. They incorporate most or even all of your systems into one single interface, which may feature either a touch screen or keypad control.
While it may seem overwhelming to think about combining all the different systems into one, don&#;t fret. MFDs are shockingly easy to learn how to use because most modern versions utilize a user-interface that&#;s very similar to the smart sitting in your pocket. You&#;ll discover that home screens have pages with app-like, tap-to-activate icons that allow you to choose between functions, and customizable pages that allow you to bring combinations of different functions up in split-screen modes.
If you&#;re just buying a new boat that incorporates the latest and greatest technology, you may discover that the MFD controls not only the marine electronics, but also all of the boat&#;s electrical systems. This ability comes courtesy of tech called &#;digital switching.&#;
Digital switching allows you to turn any device on or off right from the MFD screen (think of it like Nest for your boat). So when a boat is built with a digital switching system things like the light switches, livewell pumps, electric windows, and anchor windlasses can all be controlled with a tap or a swipe of your finger on the MFD.
You&#;ve almost certainly enjoyed the benefits of GPS mapping on your and in your car. Just as this tech has made driving around on land a lot less confusing, it&#;s made navigating a boat a snap. You may navigate with a stand-along GPS/chartplotter, the GPS/chartplotter function on your MFD, or even via an app on your or tablet (see 5 Best Marine Navigation Apps for Boaters, to find the right nav app for your needs).
In truth, there really isn&#;t a huge difference between navigating a boat with a GPS/chartplotter and navigating a car with GPS mapping. No, there are no roads and yes, you have to be aware of factors like water depth, navigational aids, and hazards to navigation. But the basic concept is quite similar and once you&#;ve checked out Marine GPS for Boats: Understanding the Basics, and Marine Navigation: How to Navigate a Boat, you should find that when it comes to figuring out simple navigational techniques the learning curve is quite short.
Marine GPS for Boats: Understanding the Basics
Fish finders and depth sounders are also functions that are built into most MFDs but may be found as stand-alone units as well, particularly on small all-purpose fishing boats, center consoles, and other boats designed for fishing which don&#;t necessarily have larger, more expensive electronics systems installed.
They may have touch-screen or tactile interfaces, and generally have a number of settings that can improve performance quite a bit depending on factors like water depth, the level of suspended solids in the water, zoom levels, and so on. Fortunately, all modern fish finders have &#;auto&#; modes that can do most of the fine-tuning for you.
Ready to dig a bit deeper into the details?
How to Use a Fish Finder
Engine monitors provide you with digital gauges like tachometers, fuel level, and engine temperature. Once again, this functionality may come through your MFD or you may have dedicated screens to show you nothing but engine data. In this case, however, having dedicated screens is more common because you&#;ll want to be able to monitor your powerplants whenever they&#;re running.
Engine monitors can take up a lot of screen space on an MFD, leaving less room for other systems to be viewed. And they usually need to be used simultaneously with things like chartplotters and fishfinders. So most of the time, engine monitors will have their own stand-alone screens.
Just about all of us are used to seeing digital gauges in the dashboard of our cars and trucks, so you should have zero problem adapting to using them in your boat. Just remember that with a boat there are often more variables to consider, and engine monitors may include things like drive trim level or rudder angle in addition to basic engine data.
Of all the electronics on your boat, the VHF radio is one of the most important. It&#;s a critical piece of safety gear and the most reliable way to communicate with the authorities in case of emergency. Yes, we all carry cell phones these days, but cell service can get sketchy on many waterways and cell phones are prone to water damage.
Your VHF radio, on the other hand, is the best way to reliably get a call for help through to the authorities in any place or situation. VHFs are relatively simple to operate, so read through How to Use a VHF Radio and familiarize yourself with the process.
How to Use a VHF Radio
What about all those more advanced systems found on larger boats, like autopilots, radar, or EPIRBs? We have info about them, too, which you can find below. But for the average boat owner, our short-list will cover all the bases. Learn how to use your MFD, GPS/chartplotter, fish finder or depth sounder, engine monitors, and VHF radio, and you&#;ll be ready to hit the water and enjoy some fun in the sun with confidence.
Read Next: Best Boating Apps for Navigation, Fishing, Weather & More
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